The Nature of Science and Scientific Theories
Science teachers teach about science concepts in their classrooms, but rarely do they take time to help students understand what science is and what it is not. One of the greatest problems in science education centers on this lack of understanding by teachers, school administrators, and the general public.
The following information should be of help to teachers, parents, and students. The business of science is to develop theories based on natural explanations about how the natural world works.
Position Statement on Science Education
Arkansas Science
Teachers Association 2006
Arkansas Science Teachers Association (ASTA) members hold various personal views concerning the origin of the universe and of life. As a professional organization, ASTA is opposed to any religious view, such, as creationism or intelligent design, being taught in the public schools as science.
ASTA finds science and religion to be complementary rather than contradictory. Science strives to explain the nature of the cosmos while religion seeks to give the cosmos and the life within it a purpose. Human existence is enriched by a knowledge and understanding of both science and religion.
Religious explanations of the origin of the universe and of life are based on faith. Because these explanations vary among different religions, the views are best taught in the home or within the context of religious institutions.
Scientific explanations regarding the origin of the universe and of life are based on experimentation and may change, as new evidence is uncovered. The goal of science is to discover and investigate universally accepted natural explanations. This process of discovery and description of natural phenomena should be taught in public schools. Therefore, both curriculum and selection of instructional materials for public schools must reflect established scientific evidence.
Comparison
of the Ways of Knowing
People have several ways that
they know about their world. The chart below lists some of the ways of
knowing. One way of knowing is no more valid that another to most
people. However, as you read the chart please note that science is a
way of knowing that requires the use of certain rules and methods that differs
from the other means of knowing. Scientific knowledge limited to the
natural world. Scientific knowledge and religious knowledge do not have to be
contradictory. It is important to know these differences, so that they
can be complementary.
|
Religious Knowledge |
Philosophic Knowledge |
Cultural Knowledge |
Science Knowledge |
|
Seeks answers to any question that can be posed including answers to the ultimate questions (What is my purpose? What is the meaning of life? Is there a supreme being? etc.). |
Seeks answers to any question that can be posed including answers to the ultimate (What is my purpose? What is the meaning of life? Is there a supreme being? etc.). |
Seeks answers to any question that can be posed including answers to the ultimate questions (What is my purpose? What is the meaning of life? etc.), but generally relates to how people treat one another. |
Can only seek answers about the natural world but cannot answer ultimate questions (Is there a god? What is the meaning of life?). |
|
Seek predictions on any event based on faith and belief. |
Seek predictions on any event based on point of view. |
Seek predictions on any event based on belief and cultural history. |
Seek predictions about future natural events based on observational evidence and testing. |
|
The rules may vary among the different religions. |
The rules may vary among the different philosophic views. |
The rules may vary among the different cultures. |
Has a set of rules that must be followed in order to be called science. |
|
Explanations are based on beliefs and faith and seek to understand and follow an ultimate purpose. |
Explanations are based on logic or viewpoint and seek to understand and follow an ultimate purpose and may undergo some type of testing. |
Explanations are based on beliefs and seek to understand and follow an ultimate purpose. |
Explanations are based on observation, evidence, and testing. |
|
Explanations can include supernatural forces. |
Explanations can include supernatural forces and viewpoints. |
Explanations can include supernatural forces and other historical viewpoints. |
Explanations cannot include supernatural forces. |
|
Hypotheses need not be part of the religion, nor do hypotheses have to be tested nor proved or disproved. |
Hypotheses may be a part of the philosophic view and hypotheses may or may not have to be tested and proved or disproved. |
Hypotheses need not be part of the cultural view, nor do hypotheses have to be tested nor proven. |
The hypothesis used in tests must be able to be disproved. |
|
Is a belief system and seeks truths. |
Is a point of view and seeks truths. |
May be a belief system rooted in historical views and seeks truths. |
Is not a belief system nor seeks truths. |
|
Knowledge may not change greatly over time, but may be swayed by culture. |
Knowledge may not change greatly over time and may be influenced by culture. |
May be a belief system rooted in historical views and seeks truths. Knowledge may or may not change slowly over time. |
Knowledge may change as new data arises. |
|
Accepted knowledge does not need peer review or verification. |
Accepted knowledge may seek peer review or verification, but conclusions may differ among individuals. |
Accepted knowledge may seek review or verification, but conclusions may differ among individuals. |
All knowledge must have peer review and verification. |
Teachers should know the following about the Nature of Science
Grades 4
& 5
Teachers should know and be able to teach:
- All things
in nature and the universe are real (not imagined)
- Laws of
nature do not change in space or time (Laws of nature on Earth are the
same as on Mars and they have remained the same now as in the past or in
the future).
- Science is
limited to the study of the natural world. Supernatural explanations are
not a part of scientific studies (see ways of knowing).
- The
simplest natural explanation is the one accepted by science.
- Scientific
research and knowledge have to be reviewed by other scientists before they
are accepted.
- Life on
this planet, the planet itself, other planets, and stars change over time.
- Scientific
knowledge may be modified over time as new data and evidence are found.
Grades 6, 7,
& 8
Teachers should know and be able to teach:
- Science
deals with inquiry about the natural world. Supernatural explanations are
not a part of scientific studies (see ways of knowing).
- Scientists
look for cause and effect in nature. Case and effect are real in the
natural world.
- Laws of
nature do not change in space or time (thus the carbon clock is the same
now as it always has been)
- The
simplest natural explanation is the accepted one (the Law of Parsimony)
- Scientists
have a series of checks and balances to validate new data and evidence.
- Define
hypothesis, law, and theory and distinguish between these terms.
- The word
theory in science is not used, as people often use the word theory, to
mean a hunch or a guess. A theory is held with a high degree of confidence
and is supported by enough evidence to make its abandonment unlikely.
Grades 9-12
Teachers should know and be able to teach:
- Science is
the method of explaining the natural world. Science presumes that the
objects and events in the universe occur in consistent patterns that are
comprehensible through careful, systematic study.
- Science
assumes that anything in the natural world can be observed or measured is
amenable to scientific investigation.
- Science
also assumes that the universe operates according to regularities that can
be discovered and understood through scientific investigations. The
testing of various explanations of natural phenomena for their consistency
with empirical data is an essential part of the methodology of science.
- Science is
limited to explaining natural phenomena through the use of empirical
evidence; therefore it cannot provide answers to personal or religious
beliefs, superstitions, myths or ultimate explanations (see ways of
knowing).
- The
primary goal of science is the formation of theories (explanations) and
laws, which are terms with very specific meanings.
- Scientists
test hypotheses (A testable statement or prediction about the natural
which can be supported by experiment or observation) by conducting
observations or experiments from which they collect data, analyze the data
and write up their results for publication.
- Scientists
must publish their results and evidence in scientific journals for peer
review and acceptance to become a part of scientific knowledge.
- Peer
review leads to attempts to replicate and verify the results. If the
results are verified this may lead to further observations and
experiments.
- Some
scientists may review these findings and work of other scientists to
further develop or refine theories and in infrequent cases development new
theories.
- Laws are
generalizations of universal relationships related to the way that some
aspect of the natural world behaves under certain conditions is often
stated in a form of a mathematical equation.
- Theories
are well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world
that explains facts, laws, inferences, and tested hypotheses. Theories do
not become laws even with additional evidence; they explain laws. However,
not all scientific laws have accompanying explanatory theories.
- Well-established
laws and theories must be internally consistent and compatible with the
best available evidence, must be successfully tested against a wide range
of applicable phenomena and evidence, must possess appropriately broad and
demonstrable effectiveness in further research, and must
have the potential to lead to new knowledge and have predictive
power.
- Scientific
explanations are called "theories." In ordinary speech,
"theory" is often used to mean "guess" or
"hunch," whereas in scientific terminology, a theory is a set of
universal statements that explain some aspect of the natural world. A
scientific theory is held with a high degree of confidence and is
supported by enough physical evidence to make its abandonment unlikely.
- The body
of scientific knowledge changes as new observations and discoveries are
made. Theories and other explanations change. New theories emerge, and
other theories are modified or discarded. Throughout this process,
theories are formulated and tested on the basis of evidence, internal
consistency, and their explanatory power.
- Scientific
knowledge is simultaneously reliable and tentative. Having confidence in
scientific knowledge is reasonable while realizing that such knowledge may
be abandoned or modified in light of new evidence or re-conceptualization
of prior evidence and knowledge.
- Although
no single universal step-by-step scientific method captures the complexity
of doing science, a number of shared values and perspectives characterize
a scientific approach to understanding nature. Among these are a demand
for naturalistic explanations supported by empirical evidence that are, at
least in principle, testable against the natural world. Other shared
elements include observations, rational argument, inference, skepticism,
peer review and replicability of work.
A Simple Explanation of
How Scientists Conduct Their Work:
Teachers should know and be able to teach:
- Scientists
ask questions about the natural world based on observations. To do
this they must first research all the previous scientific results
on a particular question.
- Scientists
develop hypotheses: possible explanations for the phenomena they observe
in the natural world (possible answers to questions) that can be tested
based on observations and/or experiments and that are consistent with what
is already known about these phenomena.
- Scientists
develop predictions, observations, and/or experimental results that we
expect to see if the hypothesis is true.
- If the
predictions are not confirmed, scientists conclude that the hypothesis is
not supported, since if it had been supported by observations, what was
predicted would have been observed.
- If the
predictions are confirmed, scientists conclude that the hypothesis is
supported, but they do not conclude that it is true, because there might
be another hypothesis that would predict the same outcome or other
evidence that is contradictory, which has yet to be discovered.
- Hypotheses
do not become theories. Hypotheses are predictions of specific instances,
whereas theories are explanations of phenomena in a general sense.
Well-Known Scientific Theories
Teachers’ should know
and be able to teach scientific theories. All of these are strongly supported
by scientific evidence. One undisputed fact by all scientists around the world
is that scientific knowledge is in a constant state of change. As more sophisticated methods of
investigation are developed, the knowledge base of science will continue to
expand. There are multiple examples
of this of which teachers should be aware:
1.
Modern Atomic Theory
2. Kinetic Molecular Theory
3. The Germ Theory of Disease
4. The Big Bang Theory
5. The Theory of Evolution
6. The Theory of Gravity
7. Cell Theory
8. The Theories of Relativity
9. Plate Tectonic Theory
10. Quantum Mechanical Theory
11. String Theory
12. Unified Field Theory
Modern Atomic Theory: Since the earliest consideration that matter existed as
solid particles more than 2500 years ago, the description of the atom has been
modified extensively. It was only in 1917 that the entire scientific community
finally abandoned the argument of the existence of a continuous form of matter
and agreed that matter existed only in particulate form. Over the past century,
as fundamental observations exploring for a deeper understanding of matter and
energy were occurring, a more in depth understanding of the nature of the atom
was emerging and has been recognized as today’s Modern Atomic
Theory. As more information is
uncovered through additional scientific research, the theory will continue to
be modified to explain all of the existing evidence.
In simplest terms, the atom is composed of a central nucleus composed of two particles, the neutron and proton, surrounded by a cloud of extremely small particles called electrons. The identity of the atom depends upon the number and type of particles contained in its nucleus. Neutrons and protons are composed of smaller particles called quarks. The atom is best described through high-order mathematical relationships in a field of science called Quantum Mechanics.
Some fundamental concepts of
atomic structure can be illustrated using simple visual methods (drawings, 3D
models, etc.); however, it is important to emphasize that the method utilized
is only a visualization technique of something no one has really seen.
The challenge of describing an atom in simplistic terms on the macroscopic
level is made more difficult because the physical laws that determine the
actual “appearance” of an atom exist only in the ultramicroscopic
level described in quantum mechanics. The physical laws as taught at the
macroscopic level are no longer valid and have no meaning at the quantum
level. Therefore, any macroscopic description is inherently flawed
because the scientific laws and principles used to explain the atom are
actually untrue at the atomic level. Teachers should only go into as much
detail about the structure of the atom as is necessary to teach the information
required under the
Kinetic-Molecular
Theory: The Kinetic-Molecular Theory (KMT)
states that matter is composed of tiny particles in constant motion. Through KMT, the processes of osmosis,
diffusion and the concept of temperature can be explained. KMT is the basis of our knowledge of the
movement of matter on a macroscopic level.
The theory allows scientists to explain the behavior of matter in the
different physical states that matter can exist. The theory also provides a
thorough means of understanding the process of energy transfer between
particles of matter.
Big Bang Theory: Big bang theory assumes that the universe began from a singular state of infinite density and expanding from an explosive moment of creation. Fred Hoyle coined the term Big Bang. The Big Bang Theory is the dominant scientific theory about the origin of the universe. According to the Big Bang, the universe was created sometime between 10 billion and 20 billion years ago from a cosmic explosion that hurled matter and in all directions.
Gravitational Theory: According to legend, Isaac Newton developed a Theory of Gravity which describes an attractive force which will always exist between two bodies of matter after he saw an apple falling (whether the apple hit him on the head is open to discussion). Modern gravitational theory has taken on new avenues of thought as theoretical work by Einstein and others have opened up entirely new line of thought. Considering the four fundamental type of forces in nature (strong nuclear; weak nuclear; electromagnetic; and, gravitational), gravity has several characteristics that distinguish it from the other three forces: (1). It is universal, (2). It is always attractive, (3). It is a long-range interaction (long range meaning gravity can affect objects millions of miles distant from each other).
The Theory of Evolution: Evolution theory says that all living things are related to one another through common ancestry from earlier forms that differed from the present forms. Exactly how evolution occurs is still a matter of debate, but that it occurs is a scientific fact. Biologists agree that all living things arose through a long history of changes shaped by physical and chemical processes that are still taking place. According to the theory, variability among individuals in a population of sexually reproducing organisms is produced by mutation and genetic recombination. The resulting genetic variability is subject to natural selection in the environment. See a detailed explanation below.
Cell Theory: The cell theory of life states: (1). All living material is made up of cells (2). All cells are derived from previously existing cells; most cells arise by cell division, but in sexual organisms they may be formed by the fusion of sperm and egg (3). A cell is the most elementary unit of life (4). Every cell is bounded by a plasma membrane, an extremely thin skin separating it from the environment and from other cells (5). All cells have strong biochemical similarities and (6). Most cells are small, about 0.001 cm (0.0004 in) in length; for example, the smallest cells of the microorganism mycoplasma are 0.3 micrometers in size, whereas some giant algae cells may be several centimeters long.
The Germ Theory of Disease: French bacteriologist Louis Pasteur is considered the founder of microbiology. Pasteur argued that germs caused infectious diseases. The germ theory has affected our views on infectious disease, surgery, hospital management, agriculture, and industry.
Relativity Theories: Albert Einstein’s theory of special relativity, published in 1905, revealed that energy and matter are different manifestations of the same phenomenon and can be transformed into each other in terms of the relationship E = mc(2) . Einstein’s theory of general relativity, published in 1917, provided a powerful new way to view gravity as a warping of the four-dimensional space-time continuum by the presence of matter. If space-time is imagined as a rubber sheet, then massive objects such as stars and galaxies create deformations in space-time, just as a bowling ball sitting on a mattress creates a dent into which nearby smaller objects fall. Thus the shape of space-time determines the behavior of matter/energy. At the same time, the presence of matter/energy determines the shape of space-time.
Plate Tectonics Theory: Plate tectonics is an all-embracing theory that the Earth is divided into a number of rigid plates floating on a viscous under-layer in the mantle. Alfred L. Wegener was the first to propose in 1912 that the continents were at one time connected and had drifted apart. In 1960 when H. H. Hess suggested that new ocean floor was created at the mid-oceanic ridges and that the ocean evolved by seafloor spreading.
Quantum Theory: This theory says that energy exist in tiny discrete units called quanta. Just as earlier theory showed how light, generally seen as a wave motion, could also in some ways be seen as composed of discrete particles (photons), quantum theory shows how atomic particles such as electrons may also be seen as having wavelike properties. Quantum theory is the basis of particle physics, modern theoretical chemistry, and the solid-state physics that describes the behavior of the silicon chips used in computers. Quantum theory and the theory of relativity together form the theoretical basis of modern physics. Later work by scientists elaborated the theory into what is called quantum mechanics (or wave mechanics).
String Theory: This theory is that all matter is composed of strings. The strings themselves are the smallest possible particles, with a length of 10-33 cm, and no width or height. Strings can be open or closed. Closed strings have the shape of a circle or oval, and open strings have ends. A string occupies one single point in space-time at any one time.
Unified Field Theory: Einstein proposed that there must be a
“simplier” explanation in nature for the interactions between
matter than the concept of the four fundamental interactions (or forces)
because he believed that all of the laws of nature were very basic and should
only exist in simplest terms. To
Einstein, having four fundament forces was not simplest. Having a single concept that manifests
itself in four different ways was much more elegant and therefore simpler. Einstein worked for the last 20 years of
his life without discovering the elegant answer he was sure that existed. Since
his death in 1955, continued scientific investigation has unified three of the
four forces and some evidence has been made public that the fourth force
(gravity) has also been unified. If
this is true then Einstein’s dream would have come true. Only time and additional study will confirm
or refute this claim
Lack of understanding of the
nature of science can cause a conflict between the theory of evolution and
religion with some people. Science and relgious knowledge come from two
differene domains. Scientific knowledge does not have anything to say
about religion since it is a belief system that is based on the supernatural.
Many scientists are very religious people. ASTA's position
above is very power in that it states that science and religion to be
complementary rather than contradictory.
Grades 4-5th
Teachers should know and be able to teach:
- All life
on Earth is related.
- That
reproduction leads to a variety of individuals in each generation,
individuals who differ from each other.
- The
organisms that are most successful at capturing energy and escaping
predators are the parents of the next generation.
- Offspring
tend to resemble their parents, so species gradually over long periods of
time becomes better and better fitted to the environment that it lives in.
- Many
different life forms have existed in the past that different in appearance
from today life forms. The past life forms have died out (become extinct).
- Identify
some of the life forms that no longer exist, give their names and why they
no longer exist.
- The Earth
is 4.5 billion years old. Teachers should be able to site the scientific
evidence that supports the age of the Earth.
Grades 6th - 7th
(Life Science)
Teachers should know and be able to teach:
- Evolution
is the change in behavior, structure, genetics or function of species over
time.
- Variation
exists within the genes of all species that are the results of mutations.
- How some
individuals of a species are better suited for survival and leave more
offspring in a particular environment and that this is called natural
selection.
- How over
time, changes within species, leads to the replacement of old species by
new species as less successful species become extinct and that this is
call evolution.
- How
Earth’s present-day complex species developed from earlier,
distinctly different simpler species.
- There is
only one theory of evolution. It has changed over time as new evidence is
found.
High School Grades
Teachers should know and be able to teach:
- Lamarck's
explanation of evolution and Darwin's theory of evolution and compare
these with what we presently know about evolution.
- Explain
what makes a scientific theory, and why there is only one scientific
theory for evolution.
- Evolution
is a change in allele frequencies across successive generations in a
population of organisms.
- The DNA of
an organism will occasionally change, or mutate.
- A mutation
changes the DNA of an organism in a way that affects its offspring, either
immediately or several generations down the line.
- The change
brought about by a mutation can be beneficial, harmful or neutral (If the
change is harmful, then it is unlikely that the offspring will survive to
reproduce, so the mutation dies out and goes nowhere. If the change is
beneficial, then it is likely that the offspring will do better than other
offspring and so will reproduce more. Through reproduction, the beneficial
mutation spreads).
- The
process of culling bad mutations and spreading good mutations is called
natural selection. It is a driving force in what life forms exist in a
give time and environment.
- Natural
selection acts on the phenotype rather than the genotype of an organism.
- Alleles
that are lethal in a homozygous individual may be carried in a
heterozygote and thus maintained in a gene pool.
- New
mutations are constantly being generated in a gene pool.
- Variation
within a species increases the likelihood that at least some members of a
species will survive under changed environmental conditions.
- Solve the
Hardy-Weinberg equation to predict the frequency of genotypes in a
population, given the frequency of phenotypes.
- Evolution
is the result of genetic changes that occur in constantly changing
environments.
- Natural
selection determines the differential survival of groups of organisms.
- A great diversity
of species increases the chance that at least some organisms survive major
changes in the environment.
- Explain
the effects of genetic drift on the diversity of organisms in a
population.
- Reproductive
or geographic isolation affects speciation.
Analyze fossil evidence with regard to biological diversity, episodic speciation, and mass extinction. - Use
comparative embryology, DNA or protein sequence comparisons, and other
independent sources of data to create a branching diagram (cladogram) that
shows probable evolutionary relationships. Scientists use cladistics
(phylogenetic systematics) to analyze relationships in living things and
then group organisms according to shared features.
- Know how
several independent molecular clocks, calibrated against each other and
combined with evidence from the fossil record, can help to estimate how
long ago various groups of organisms diverged evolutionarily from one
another.
- Relate how
gradualism and punctuated equilibrium describe the rate of evolution.
- Describe
the importance of fossils as evidence of evolution and give examples.
- Explain
how relative and radioactive dating is used to date fossils.
- Be able to
give examples of five types of evidence (DNA and protein, fossil,
morphology, embryology and geographic distribution of related species) for
evolution.
- Be able to
discuss antibiotic resistance in bacteria, pesticide resistance in
insects, herbicide resistance in weeds, and drug resistance in viruses as
examples of evolution.
- Define
extinction and give examples and cause of the extinction in the past.
- Evolution
is important not only in biology courses (where evolution is the central
concept of the entire field), but also in physics, astronomy, geology,
chemistry, and physical science. These other science help students
understand the age and origin of the Earth, radioactive dating, how
fossils tell us about the past, astrobiology, the search for
extraterrestrial intelligence, the "chemical evolution" on
Earth, and how organic molecules and compounds can change (mutate) over
time.
History of Creation Science in Arkansas Courts
- Creation
science focused on defending a literal reading of the Genesis account,
usually including the sudden creation of the earth by the Biblical God a
few thousand years ago, special creation for species without change, no
recognition of natural selection, and separate ancestry for apes and man.
- In 1968,
in Epperson v.
Arkansas, the United States Supreme Court invalidated
an Arkansas statute that prohibited the teaching of evolution. The Court
held the statute unconstitutional on the grounds that the First Amendment
to the U.S. Constitution does not permit a state to require that teaching
and learning must be tailored to the principles or prohibitions of any
particular religious sect or doctrine.
- ACT 590 of
1981,An ACT to require balance treatment of creation-science and
evolution. The requirement for balanced treatment meant that
“public schools within this State shall give balanced treatment
to creation-science and to evolution-science. Balanced treatment to these
two models shall be given in classroom lectures taken as a whole for each
course, in textbook materials taken as a whole for each course, in library
materials taken as a whole for the sciences and taken as a whole for the humanities,
and in other educational programs in public schools, to the extent that
such lectures, textbooks, library materials, or educational programs deal
in any way with the subject of the origin of man, life, the earth, or the
universe.”
- Creation-science
means the scientific evidences for creation and inferences from those
scientific evidences. Creation-science includes the scientific evidences
and related inferences that indicate: (1) Sudden creation of the universe,
energy, and life from nothing; (2) The insufficiency of mutation and
natural selection in bringing about development of all living kinds from a
single organism; (3) Changes only within fixed limits of originally
created kinds of plants and animals; (4) Separate ancestry for man and apes;
(5) Explanation of the earth's geology by catastrophism, including the
occurrence of a worldwide flood; and (6) A relatively recent inception of
the earth and living kinds.
- Evolution-science
means the scientific evidences for evolution and inferences from those
scientific evidences. Evolution-science includes the scientific evidences
and related inferences that indicate: (1) Emergence by naturalistic
processes of the universe from disordered matter and emergence of life
from nonlife; (2) The sufficiency of mutation and natural selection in
bringing about development of present living kinds from simple earlier
kinds; (3) Emergency [sic] by mutation and natural selection of present
living kinds from simple earlier kinds; (4) Emergence of man from a common
ancestor with apes; (3) Explanation of the earth's geology and the
evolutionary sequence by uniformitarianism; and (6) An inception several
billion years ago of the earth and somewhat later of life.
- In his
1982 decision on ACT 590 in the case of McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education,
U.S. District Court Judge William R. Overton wrote that creation science
is based on foundational beliefs derived from the Hebrew Scriptures (Old
Testament) and the court found the statute did not have a secular purpose,
noting that the statute used language peculiar to creationist literature
in emphasizing origins of life as an aspect of the theory of evolution.
While the subject of life's origins is within the province of biology, the
scientific community does not consider the subject as part of evolutionary
theory, which assumes the existence of life and is directed to an
explanation of how life evolved after it originated. The theory of
evolution does not presuppose either the absence or the presence of a
creator.
- These
court cases and others make it illegal to teach creation science as
science in the public classroom.
Intelligent Design (ID is a religious viewpoint and not science)
- Intelligent
design (ID) is an attempt to legislate science. The ID holds that certain
features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an
intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as natural selection.
- ID
advocates present an argument of "irreducibly complex systems,"
systems that could not function if they were missing just one of their
many parts. These systems cannot evolve in a Darwinian fashion, because
natural selection works on small mutations in just one component at a
time. ID concludes that intelligent design must be responsible for these
irreducibly complex systems. It is an argument against natural selection.
- ID does
not meet the requirements to be a scientific theory because it does not
provide conclusive evidence that can be subjected to the test of
observation, experimentation, reasoning and peer review. It does not have
the ability to explain what has been observed in nature, or to predict
what has not yet been observed, or be able to submit to experimentation
and to be modified as required by the acquisition of new data.
- There is
debate about ID and evolution -- but not in the scientific community.
Among scientists, ID has not only been ignored, but it has also been
forcefully rejected on the basis of 1) clear lack of testable hypotheses,
2) misrepresentation of scientific evidence pertinent to both evolution
and arguments used in favor of ID, and 3) misrepresentation of motive.
There is only one theory of evolution in science.
- The first
question that must be answered about ID is who or what is the designer.
Only a supernatural force would guide natural selection and mutations. If
it is God, this violates separation of church and state and does not have a secular purpose,
plus it moves the question out of realm of science. Science only seeks
answers about the natural world using natural explanations (see the chart
above).
- Recent
court cases have shown ID to be a type of creation science and thus
illegal to teach it as science in a public school classroom.
Misconceptions about
Evolution
http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-misconceptions.html#proof
Creationism Arguments and
Rebuttal
http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/list.html
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